Interrupting the Pathway From Discrimination to Black Adolescents’ Psychosocial Outcomes: The Contribution of Parental Racial Worries and Racial Socialization Competency
Corresponding Author
Riana E. Anderson
University of Michigan
Correspondence concerning this article should be addressed to Riana E. Anderson, School of Public Health, University of Michigan, 3822 SPH I, 1415 Washington Heights, Ann Arbor, MI 48109. Electronic mail may be sent to [email protected].
Search for more papers by this authorCorresponding Author
Riana E. Anderson
University of Michigan
Correspondence concerning this article should be addressed to Riana E. Anderson, School of Public Health, University of Michigan, 3822 SPH I, 1415 Washington Heights, Ann Arbor, MI 48109. Electronic mail may be sent to [email protected].
Search for more papers by this authorAbstract
Racial discrimination can lead to psychosocial problems for Black adolescents, including internalization (e.g., depression) and externalization (e.g., conduct problems). Black parents (N = 186; Mage = 42.9) of adolescents (ages 10–18) were assessed to investigate how parental worries and racial socialization competency (i.e., confidence, skills, and stress) contribute to the association between parental discrimination experiences and their adolescents’ psychosocial problems. Mediation analyses indicated that the total direct models with discrimination, worries, and problems had good fit, and that the addition of worry mediated the discrimination-problems association. Furthermore, racial socialization competency moderated the association between worry and problems, wherein greater competency was associated with less impact of worry on problems. Findings illuminate potential intervention targets for buffering discrimination’s influence on adolescents’ psychosocial functioning.
References
- Achenbach, T. M., McConaughy, S. H., Ivanovaa, M., & Rescorla, L. A. (2011). Manual for the ASEBA Brief Problem Monitor (BPM). Burlington, VT: University of Vermont, Research Center for Children, Youth, & Families.
- Anderson, R. E., Hussain, S., Wilson, M., Shaw, D. S., Dishion, T. J., & Williams, J. L. (2015). Pathways to pain: Racial discrimination and relations between parental functioning and child psychosocial well-being. Journal of Black Psychology, 41, 491–512. https://doi.org/10.1177/0095798414548511
- Anderson, R. E., Jones, S., Anyiwo, N., McKenny, M., & Gaylord-Harden, N. (2019). What's race got to do with it? Racial socialization's contribution to Black adolescent coping. Journal of Research on Adolescence, 29, 822–831. https://doi.org/10.1111/jora.12440
- Anderson, R. E., Jones, S. C. T., & Stevenson, H. C. (2019). The initial development and validation of the Racial Socialization Competency Scale: Quality and quantity. Cultural Diversity & Ethnic Minority Psychology, 26, 426–436. https://doi.org/10.1037/cdp0000316
- Anderson, R. E., Lee, D., Hope, M., Nisbeth, K., Bess, K., & Zimmerman, M. (2020). Disrupting the behavioral health consequences of racial discrimination: A longitudinal investigation of racial identity profiles and alcohol-related problems. Health Education & Behavior, 47, 706–717. https://doi.org/10.1177/1090198120923268
- Anderson, R. E., McKenny, M., Mitchell, A., Koku, L., & Stevenson, H. C. (2018). EMBRacing racial stress and trauma: Preliminary feasibility and coping response of a racial socialization intervention. Journal of Black Psychology, 44, 25–46. https://doi.org/10.1177/0095798417732930
- Anderson, R. E., McKenny, M. C., & Stevenson, H. C. (2019). EMBRace: Developing a racial socialization intervention to reduce racial stress and enhance racial coping among black parents and adolescents. Family Process, 58, 53–67. https://doi.org/10.1111/famp.12412
- Anderson, R. E., & Stevenson, H. (2019). RECASTing racial stress and trauma: Theorizing the healing potential of racial socialization in families. American Psychologist, 74, 63–75. https://doi.org/10.1037/amp0000392
- Assari, S., Moazen-Zadeh, E., Caldwell, C. H., & Zimmerman, M. A. (2017). Racial discrimination during adolescence predicts mental health deterioration in adulthood: Gender differences among blacks. Frontiers in Public Health, 5, 104. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpubh.2017.00104
- Ayón, C., Marsiglia, F. F., & Bermudez-Parsai, M. (2010). Latino family mental health: Exploring the role of discrimination and familismo. Journal of Community Psychology, 38, 742–756. https://doi.org/10.1002/jcop.20392
- Bannon Jr, W. M., McKay, M. M., Chacko, A., Rodriguez, J. A., & Cavaleri Jr, M. (2009). Cultural pride reinforcement as a dimension of racial socialization protective of urban African American child anxiety. Families in Society, 90(1), 79–86.
- Belsky, J. (1984). The determinants of parenting: A process model. Child Development, 55, 83–96. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-8624.1984.tb00275.x
- Bentley, K., Adams, V., & Stevenson, H. (2009). Racial socialization: Roots, processes, and outcomes. In H. A. Neville, B. M. Tynes, & S. O. Utsey (Eds.), Handbook of African American psychology (pp. 255–267). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
- Brandon, D. M., Long, J. H., Loraas, T. M., Mueller-Phillips, J., & Vansant, B. (2014). Online instrument delivery and participant recruitment services: Emerging opportunities for behavioral accounting research. Behavioral Research in Accounting, 26(1), 1–23.
10.2308/bria-50651 Google Scholar
- Brody, G. H., Murry, V. M., Kim, S., & Brown, A. C. (2002). Longitudinal pathways to competence and psychological adjustment among African American children living in rural single–parent households. Child Development, 73, 1505–1516. https://doi.org/10.1111/1467-8624.00486
- Brown, C., & Bigler, R. S. (2005). Children's perceptions of discrimination: A developmental model. Child Development, 76, 533–553. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-8624.2005.00862.x
- Burt, C. H., Simons, R. L., & Gibbons, F. X. (2012). Racial discrimination, ethnic-racial socialization, and crime: A micro-sociological model of risk and resilience. American Sociological Review, 77, 648–677. https://doi.org/10.1177/0003122412448648
- Bynum, M. S., Burton, E. T., & Best, C. (2007). Racism experiences and psychological functioning in African American college freshmen: Is racial socialization a buffer? Cultural Diversity and Ethnic Minority Psychology, 13, 64. https://doi.org/10.1037/1099-9809.13.1.64
- Cameron, H. A., & Schoenfeld, T. J. (2018). Behavioral and structural adaptations to stress. Frontiers in Neuroendocrinology, 49, 106–113. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.yfrne.2018.02.002
- Caughy, M. O. B., O'Campo, P. J., & Muntaner, C. (2004). Experiences of racism among African American parents and the mental health of their preschool-aged children. American Journal of Public Health, 94, 2118–2124. https://doi.org/10.2105/ajph.94.12.2118
- Chmielewski, M., & Kucker, S. C. (2019). An MTurk crisis? Shifts in data quality and the impact on study results. Social Psychological and Personality Science, 11, 464–473.
- Clark, R., Anderson, N. B., Clark, V., & Williams, D. R. (1999). Racism as a stressor for African Americans: A biopsychosocial model. American Psychologist, 54, 805–816. https://doi.org/10.1037//0003-066X.54.10.805
- Coard, S. I., Foy-Watson, S., Zimmer, C., & Wallace, A. (2007). Considering culturally relevant parenting practices in intervention development and adaptation: A randomized controlled trial of the Black Parenting Strengths and Strategies (BPSS) Program. The Counseling Psychologist, 35, 797–820. https://doi.org/10.1177/0011000007304592
- Cooper, S. M., Smalls-Glover, C., Metzger, I., & Brown, C. (2015). African American fathers' racial socialization patterns: Associations with and racial identity beliefs and discrimination experiences. Family Relations, 64, 278–290. https://doi.org/10.1111/fare.12115
- Diemer, M. A., & Li, C. H. (2011). Critical consciousness development and political participation among marginalized youth. Child Development, 82, 1815–1833. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-8624.2011.01650.x
- English, D., Lambert, S. F., Tynes, B. M., Bowleg, L., Zea, M. C., & Howard, L. C. (2020). Daily multidimensional racial discrimination among Black US American adolescents. Journal of Applied Developmental Psychology, 66, 101068.
- Estrada-Martínez, L., Caldwell, C., Bauermeister, J., & Zimmerman, M. (2012). Stressors in multiple life-domains and the risk for externalizing and internalizing behaviors among African Americans during emerging adulthood. Journal of Youth and Adolescence, 41, 1600–1612. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10964-012-9778-3
- Fagan, J., & Stevenson, H. C. (2002). An experimental study of an empowerment-based intervention for African American Head Start fathers. Family Relations, 51(3), 191–198.
- Fisak, B., Mann, A., & Heggeli, K. (2013). The association between perceptions of parent worry and generalised anxiety disorder symptoms in a community sample of adolescents. International Journal of Adolescence and Youth, 18, 226–235. https://doi.org/10.1080/02673843.2012.690932
10.1080/02673843.2012.690932 Google Scholar
- Ford, K. R., Hurd, N. M., Jagers, R. J., & Sellers, R. M. (2013). Caregiver experiences of discrimination and African American adolescents’ psychological health over time. Child Development, 84, 485–499. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-8624.2012.01864.x
- Frydenberg, E. (2004). Coping competencies: What to teach and when. Theory into Practice, 43(1), 14–22.
- García Coll, G., Crnic, K., Lamberty, G., Waik, B. H., Jenkins, R., Vasquez-García, H., & McAdoo, H. P. (1996). An integrative model for the study of developmental competencies in minority children. Child Development, 67, 1891–1914. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-8624.1996.tb01834.x
- Gaylord-Harden, N. K., & Cunningham, J. A. (2009). The impact of racial discrimination and coping strategies on internalizing symptoms in African American youth. Journal of Youth and Adolescence, 38, 532–543. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10964-008-9377-5
- Gibbons, F. X., Gerrard, M., Cleveland, M. J., Wills, T. A., & Brody, G. (2004). Perceived discrimination and substance use in African American parents and their children: A panel study. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 86, 517. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.86.4.517
- Goodman, S. H., & Gotlib, I. H. (1999). Risk for psychopathology in the children of depressed mothers: A developmental model for understanding mechanisms of transmission. Psychological Review, 106, 458. https://doi.org/10.1037/0033-295X.106.3.458
- Grollman, E. A. (2012). Multiple forms of perceived discrimination and health among adolescents and young adults. Journal of Health and Social Behavior, 53, 199–214. https://doi.org/10.1177/0022146512444289
- Harrell, S. P. (2000). A multidimensional conceptualization of racism-related stress: Implications for the well-being of people of color. American Journal of Orthopsychiatry, 70, 42–57. https://doi.org/10.1037/h0087722
- Harrell, S. P., Merchant, M. A., & Young, S. A. (1997). Psychometric properties of the Racism and Life Experiences Scales (RaLES). Paper presented at the American Psychological Association, April 15–19, 1997, Chicago, IL.
- Harris-Britt, A., Valrie, C. R., Kurtz-Costes, B., & Rowley, S. J. (2007). Perceived racial discrimination and self-esteem in African American youth: Racial socialization as a protective factor. Journal of Research on Adolescence, 17, 669–682. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1532-7795.2007.00540.x
- Hayes, A. F. (2009). Beyond Baron and Kenny: Statistical mediation analysis in the new millennium. Communication Monographs, 76, 408–420. https://doi.org/10.1080/03637750903310360
- Hayes, A. F. (2017). Introduction to mediation, moderation, and conditional process analysis: A regression-based approach. New York, NY: Guilford.
- Herda, D. (2016). The specter of discrimination: Fear of interpersonal racial discrimination among adolescents in Chicago. Social Science Research, 55, 48–62. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ssresearch.2015.09.010
- Herda, D., & McCarthy, B. (2018). No experience required: Violent crime and anticipated, vicarious, and experienced racial discrimination. Social Science Research, 70, 115–130. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ssresearch.2017.11.008
- Hughes, D., & Johnson, D. (2001). Correlates in children’s experiences of parents’ racial socialization behaviors. Journal of Marriage & the Family, 63, 981–995. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1741-3737.2001.00981.x
- Hughes, D., Rodriguez, J., Smith, E. P., Johnson, D. J., Stevenson, H. C., & Spicer, P. (2006). Parents' ethnic-racial socialization practices: A review of research and directions for future study. Developmental Psychology, 42, 747. https://doi.org/10.1037/0012-1649.42.5.747
- Huguley, J. P., Wang, M. T., Vasquez, A. C., & Guo, J. (2019). Parental ethnic–racial socialization practices and the construction of children of color’s ethnic–racial identity: A research synthesis and meta-analysis. Psychological Bulletin, 145(5), 437.
- IBM Corp. (2020). IBM SPSS statistics for windows, Version 27.0. Armonk, NY: Author.
- Jones, S. C., Anderson, R. E., Gaskin-Wasson, A. L., Sawyer, B. A., Applewhite, K., & Metzger, I. W. (2020). From “crib to coffin”: Navigating coping from racism-related stress throughout the lifespan of Black Americans. American Journal of Orthopsychiatry, 90, 267. https://doi.org/10.1037/ort0000430
- Jones, S. C. T., Anderson, R. E., & Metzger, I. W. (2020). “Standing in the gap”: The continued importance of culturally competent therapeutic interventions for black youth. Evidence-Based Practice in Child and Adolescent Mental Health, 5(3), 327–339. https://doi.org/10.1080/23794925.2020.1796546
10.1080/23794925.2020.1796546 Google Scholar
- Jones, S. C. T., Anderson, R. E., & Stevenson, H. (in press). “Easier said than done”: Differentiating racial socialization content from competency. Family Process.
- Koning, I. M., van den Eijnden, R. J., Glatz, T., & Vollebergh, W. A. (2013). Don’t worry! Parental worries, alcohol-specific parenting and adolescents’ drinking. Cognitive Therapy and Research, 37, 1079–1088. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10608-013-9545-0
- Lee, J., Vonk, M. E., Han, J., & Jung, S. (2018). A path analysis of a cultural and racial socialization model in international transracial adoption: Racial awareness, self-efficacy, and socialization practices. Children and Youth Services Review, 85, 333–340. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.childyouth.2018.01.002
- Lesane-Brown, C. (2006). A review of race socialization within Black families. Developmental Review, 26, 400–426. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.dr.2006.02.001
- Maxwell, S. E., & Cole, D. A. (2007). Bias in cross-sectional analyses of longitudinal mediation. Psychological Methods, 12, 23. https://doi.org/10.1037/1082-989X.12.1.23
- Maxwell, S. E., Cole, D. A., & Mitchell, M. A. (2011). Bias in cross-sectional analyses of longitudinal mediation: Partial and complete mediation under an autoregressive model. Multivariate Behavioral Research, 46, 816–841. https://doi.org/10.1080/00273171.2011.606716
- McHale, S. M., Crouter, A. C., Kim, J., Burton, L. M., Davis, K. D., Dotterer, A. M., & Swanson, D. P. (2006). Mothers' and fathers' racial socialization in African American families: Implications for youth. Child Development, 77, 1387–1402. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-8624.2006.00942.x
- McLoyd, V. (1990). The impact of economic hardship on black families and children: Psychological distress, parenting, and socioemotional development. Child Development, 61, 311–346. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-8624.1990.tb02781.x
- McNeil Smith, S., Reynolds, J. E., Fincham, F. D., & Beach, S. R. H. (2016). Parental experiences of racial discrimination and youth racial socialization in two-parent African American families. Cultural Diversity and Ethnic Minority Psychology, 22, 268–276. https://doi.org/10.1037/cdp0000064
- McNeil Smith, S., Sun, R., & Gordon, M. S. (2019). Racial discrimination and psychological distress among African American adolescents: Investigating the social support deterioration model. Journal of Child & Family Studies, 28, 1613–1622. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10826-019-01397-6
- Metzger, I. W., Anderson, R. E., Are, F., & Ritchwood, T. (2020). Healing interpersonal and racial trauma: Integrating racial socialization into trauma-focused cognitive behavioral therapy for African American youth. Child Maltreatment, 26, 17–27. https://doi.org/10.1177/1077559520921457
- Murry, V. M., Butler-Barnes, S. T., Mayo-Gamble, T. L., & Inniss-Thompson, M. N. (2018). Excavating new constructs for family stress theories in the context of everyday life experiences of Black American families. Journal of Family Theory & Review, 10, 384–405. https://doi.org/10.1111/jftr.12256
- Neblett, E. Jr, White, R., Ford, K., Philip, C., Nguyen, H., & Sellers, R. (2008). Patterns of racial socialization and psychological adjustment: Can parental communications about race reduce the impact of racial discrimination? Journal of Research on Adolescence, 18, 477–515. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1532-7795.2008.00568.x
- Neblett, E. W., Smalls, C. P., Ford, K. R., Nguyen, H. X., & Sellers, R. M. (2009). Racial socialization and racial identity: African American parents’ messages about race as precursors to identity. Journal of Youth and Adolescence, 38(2), 189–203.
- Nicolas, G., Helms, J. E., Jernigan, M. M., Sass, T., Skrzypek, A., & DeSilva, A. M. (2008). A conceptual framework for understanding the strengths of Black youths. Journal of Black Psychology, 34, 261–280. https://doi.org/10.1177/0095798408316794
- Nyborg, V., & Curry, J. (2003). The impact of perceived racism: Psychological symptoms of African American boys. Journal of Clinical Child and Adolescent Psychology, 32, 258–266. https://doi.org/10.1207/S15374424JCCP3202_11
- Pachter, L. M., & Coll, C. G. (2009). Racism and child health: A review of the literature and future directions. Journal of Developmental and Behavioral Pediatrics, 30, 255–263. https://doi.org/10.1097/DBP.0b013e3181a7ed5a
- Piper, B. J., Gray, H. M., Raber, J., & Birkett, M. A. (2014). Reliability and validity of the Brief Problem Monitor, an abbreviated form of the Child Behavior Checklist. Psychiatry and Clinical Neurosciences, 68, 759–767. https://doi.org/10.1111/pcn.12188
- Posey, L. (2017). Race in place: Black parents, family-school relations, and multispatial microaggressions in a predominantly white suburb. Teachers College Record, 119, 1–42. https://doi.org/10.1080/09540253.2016.1274389
- Preacher, K. J., Rucker, D. D., & Hayes, A. F. (2007). Addressing moderated mediation hypotheses: Theory, methods, and prescriptions. Multivariate Behavioral Research, 42(1), 185–227.
- Priest, N., Paradies, Y., Stevens, M., & Bailie, R. (2012). Exploring relationships between racism, housing and child illness in remote indigenous communities. Journal of Epidemiol Community Health, 66, 440–447. https://doi.org/10.1136/jech.2010.117366
- Richardson, B. L., Macon, T. A., Mustafaa, F. N., Bogan, E. D., Cole-Lewis, Y., & Chavous, T. M. (2015). Associations of racial discrimination and parental discrimination coping messages with African American adolescent racial identity. Journal of Youth and Adolescence, 44(6), 1301–1317.
- Saleem, F. T., English, D., Busby, D. R., Lambert, S. F., Harrison, A., Stock, M. L., & Gibbons, F. X. (2016). The Impact of African American parents’ racial discrimination experiences and perceived neighborhood cohesion on their racial socialization practices. Journal of Youth and Adolescence, 45, 1338–1349. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10964-016-0499-x
- Saleem, F. T., & Lambert, S. F. (2016). Differential effects of racial socialization messages for African American adolescents: Personal versus institutional racial discrimination. Journal of Child and Family Studies, 25, 1385–1396. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10826-015-0326-0
- Sawyer, P. J., Major, B., Casad, B. J., Townsend, S. S., & Mendes, W. B. (2012). Discrimination and the stress response: Psychological and physiological consequences of anticipating prejudice in interethnic interactions. American Journal of Public Health, 102, 1020–1026. https://doi.org/10.2105/AJPH.2011.300620
- Scott, J. C., Pinderhughes, E. E., & Johnson, S. K. (2019). How does racial context matter?: Family preparation for bias messages and racial coping reported by Black youth. Child Development, 91, 1471–1490. https://doi.org/10.1111/cdev.13332
- Scott, L. J. (2003). The relation of racial identity and racial socialization to coping with discrimination among African American adolescents. Journal of Black Studies, 33, 520–538. https://doi.org/10.1177/0021934702250035
- Shrout, P. E., & Bolger, N. (2002). Mediation in experimental and nonexperimental studies: New procedures and recommendations. Psychological Methods, 7, 422–445. https://doi.org/10.1037/1082-989X.7.4.422
- Stevenson, H. C. (2014). Promoting racial literacy in schools: Differences that make a difference. New York, NY: Teachers College Press.
- Stevenson, H. C., Davis, G., & Abdul-Kabir, S. (2001). Stickin' to watchin' Over, and Gettin' with: An African American parent's guide to discipline. Jossey-Bass.
- Stevenson, H. C., Reed, J., Bodison, P., & Bishop, A. (1997). Racism stress management: Racial socialization beliefs and the experience of depression and anger in African American youth. Youth & Society, 29(2), 197–222.
- Stevenson, H., & Abdul-Kabir, S. (1996). Reflections of hope from the “Bottom”: Cultural strengths and coping of low-income African American mothers. Proceedings of the Roundtable on Cross-Cultural Psychotherapy, Teachers College, Columbia University, New York, NY, pp. 61–69.
- Stevenson, H. C. Jr, Cameron, R., Herrero-Taylor, T., & Davis, G. Y. (2002). Development of the teenager experience of racial socialization scale: Correlates of race-related socialization frequency from the perspective of Black youth. Journal of Black Psychology, 28, 84–106. https://doi.org/10.1177/0095798402028002002
10.1177/0095798402028002002 Google Scholar
- Stevenson, H. C., & Winn, D. M. (2016). Development of the Worrying about Racial Profiling Scale (WARP). REC Report #0003, Racial Empowerment Collaborative, Graduate School of Education. Philadelphia, PA: University of Pennsylvania.
- Thomas, A., & Blackmon, S. (2015). The influence of the Trayvon Martin shooting on racial socialization practices of African American parents. Journal of Black Psychology, 41, 75–89. https://doi.org/10.1177/0095798414563610
- Thornton, M., Chatters, L., Taylor, R., & Allen, W. R. (1990). Sociodemographic and environmental correlates of racial socialization by Black parents. Child Development, 61, 401–409. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-8624.1990.tb02786.x
- Tobler, A. L., Maldonado-Molina, M. M., Staras, S. A., O'Mara, R. J., Livingston, M. D., & Komro, K. A. (2013). Perceived racial/ethnic discrimination, problem behaviors, and mental health among minority urban youth. Ethnicity & Health, 18, 337–349. https://doi.org/10.1080/13557858.2012.730609
- Tran, A. G. (2014). Family contexts: Parental experiences of discrimination and child mental health. American Journal of Community Psychology, 53, 37–46. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10464-013-9607-1
- Umaña-Taylor, A. J., & Hill, N. E. (2020). Ethnic-racial socialization in the family: A decade's advance on precursors and outcomes. Journal of Marriage and Family, 82, 244–271. https://doi.org/10.1111/jomf.12622
- Utsey, S. O. (1998). Assessing the stressful effects of racism: A review of instrumentation. Journal of Black Psychology, 24, 269–288. https://doi.org/10.1177/00957984980243001
10.1177/00957984980243001 Google Scholar
- Vines, A. I., & Baird, D. D. (2009). Stress of caring for children: The role of perceived racism. Journal of the National Medical Association, 101(2), 156–160. https://doi.org/10.1016/s0027-9684(15)30829-4
- Walker, R., Francis, D., Brody, G., Simons, R., Cutrona, C., & Gibbons, F. (2017). A longitudinal study of racial discrimination and risk for death ideation in African American youth. Suicide and Life-Threatening Behavior, 47, 86–102. https://doi.org/10.1111/sltb.12251
- Wang, M. T., Henry, D. A., Smith, L. V., Huguley, J. P., & Guo, J. (2020). Parental ethnic-racial socialization practices and children of color’s psychosocial and behavioral adjustment: A systematic review and meta-analysis. American Psychologist, 75, 1–22. https://doi.org/10.1037/amp0000464
- White-Johnson, R. L., Ford, K. R., & Sellers, R. M. (2010). Parental racial socialization profiles: Association with demographic factors, racial discrimination, childhood socialization, and racial identity. Cultural Diversity and Ethnic Minority Psychology, 16, 237–247. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0016111