Daily Ethnic/Racial Context in Peer Groups: Frequency, Structure, and Implications for Adolescent Outcomes
Corresponding Author
Yijie Wang
Michigan State University
Correspondence concerning this article should be addressed to Yijie Wang, Human Development and Family Studies, 552 W. Circle Dr., Human Ecology 13C, Michigan State University, East Lansing, MI. Electronic mail may be sent to [email protected].
Search for more papers by this authorCorresponding Author
Yijie Wang
Michigan State University
Correspondence concerning this article should be addressed to Yijie Wang, Human Development and Family Studies, 552 W. Circle Dr., Human Ecology 13C, Michigan State University, East Lansing, MI. Electronic mail may be sent to [email protected].
Search for more papers by this authorThis research is supported by the William T. Grant Foundation. The content is solely the responsibility of the author and does not necessarily represent the official views of William T. Grant Foundation. The author also thanks Drs. Tiffany Yip and Aprile D. Benner for their helpful feedback on this project.
Abstract
Ethnic/racial context in peer groups is poorly understood. Using daily data from 178 ethnically/racially diverse adolescents (Mage = 14.53) over 2 weeks, this study investigated peer processes related to ethnicity/race (peer ethnic/racial processes) in everyday life. On average, peer ethnic/racial processes occurred about 1 to 4 days over the 2 weeks. On days when adolescents reported more negative peer ethnic/racial processes (indicated by ethnic/racial teasing, discrimination, victimization, and partially by preparation for bias), they also reported lower school engagement. On days when adolescents reported more positive peer ethnic/racial processes (indicated by cultural socialization, support against discrimination, and partially by preparation for bias), they exhibited more prosocial behaviors and greater ethnic/racial identity private regard. Similar associations emerged at the between-person level.
Supporting Information
Filename | Description |
---|---|
cdev13509-sup-0001-TableS1-S2.docxWord document, 25.7 KB |
Table S1. Daily Peer Ethnic/Racial Processes Items Table S2. Factor Loadings From the Multilevel Exploratory Factor Analysis of Peer Ethnic/Racial Discrimination and Victimization Items |
Please note: The publisher is not responsible for the content or functionality of any supporting information supplied by the authors. Any queries (other than missing content) should be directed to the corresponding author for the article.
References
- Albert, D., Chein, J., & Steinberg, L. (2013). Peer influences on adolescent decision making. Current Directions in Psychological Science, 22, 114–120. https://doi.org/10.1177/0963721412471347
- Armsden, G. C., & Greenberg, M. T. (1987). The inventory of parent and peer attachment: Individual differences and their relationship to psychological well-being in adolescence. Journal of Youth and Adolescence, 16, 427–454. https://doi.org/10.1007/BF02202939
- Benner, A. D. (2011). The transition to high school: Current knowledge, future directions. Educational Psychology Review, 23, 299–328. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10648-011-9152-0
- Benner, A. D., & Graham, S. (2009). The transition to high school as a developmental process among multiethnic urban youth. Child Development, 80, 356–376. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-8624.2009.01265.x
- Benner, A. D., & Graham, S. (2011). Latino adolescents’ experiences of discrimination across the first 2 years of high school: Correlates and influences on educational outcomes. Child Development, 82, 508–519. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-8624.2010.01524.x
- Benner, A. D., & Wang, Y. (2017). Racial/ethnic discrimination and adolescents’ well-being: The role of cross-ethnic friendships and friends’ experiences of discrimination. Child Development, 88, 493–504. https://doi.org/10.1111/cdev.12606
- Benner, A. D., Wang, Y., Shen, Y., Boyle, A. E., Polk, R., & Cheng, Y.-P. (2018). Racial/ethnic discrimination and well-being during adolescence: A meta-analytic review. American Psychologist, 73, 855–883. https://doi.org/10.1037/amp0000204
- Brown, B. B., & Larson, J. (2009). Peer relationships in adolescence. In R. M. Lerner & L. Steinberg (Eds.), Handbook of adolescent psychology, Vol. 2: Contextual influences on adolescent development ( 3rd ed., pp. 74–103). Hoboken, NJ: Wiley.
10.1002/9780470479193.adlpsy002004 Google Scholar
- Cornell, D., Gregory, A., Huang, F., & Fan, X. (2013). Perceived prevalence of teasing and bullying predicts high school dropout rates. Journal of Educational Psychology, 105, 138–149. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0030416
- Douglass, S., Mirpuri, S., English, D., & Yip, T. (2016). "They were just making jokes": Ethnic/racial teasing and discrimination among adolescents. Cultural Diversity and Ethnic Minority Psychology, 22, 69–82. https://doi.org/10.1037/cdp0000041
- El-Sheikh, M., Bagley, E. J., Keiley, M., Elmore-Staton, L., Chen, E., & Buckhalt, J. A. (2013). Economic adversity and children’s sleep problems: Multiple indicators and moderation of effects. Health Psychology, 32, 849–859. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0030413
- Garcia Coll, C., Lamberty, G., Jenkins, R., McAdoo, H. P., Crnic, K., Wasik, B. H., & García, H. V. (1996). An integrative model for the study of developmental competencies in minority children. Child Development, 67, 1891–1914. https://doi.org/10.2307/1131600
- Geldhof, G. J., Preacher, K. J., & Zyphur, M. J. (2014). Reliability estimation in a multilevel confirmatory factor analysis framework. Psychological Methods, 19, 72–91. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0032138
- Gottfredson, G. D. (1984). The effective school battery. Odessa, FL: Psychological Assessment Resources Incorporated.
- Graham, J. W. (2009). Missing data analysis: Making it work in the real world. Annual Review of Psychology, 60, 549–576. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev.psych.58.110405.085530
- Graham, S., & Echols, L. (2018). Race and ethnicity in peer relations research. In W. M. Bukowski, B. Laursen, & K. H. Rubin (Eds.), Handbook of peer interactions, relationships, and groups (pp. 590–614). New York, NY: Guilford.
- Graham, S., Munniksma, A., & Juvonen, J. (2014). Psychosocial benefits of cross-ethnic friendships in urban middle schools. Child Development, 85, 469–483. https://doi.org/10.1111/cdev.12159
- Greene, M. L., Way, N., & Pahl, K. (2006). Trajectories of perceived adult and peer discrimination among Black, Latino, and Asian American adolescents: Patterns and psychological correlates. Developmental Psychology, 42, 218–236. https://doi.org/10.1037/0012-1649.42.2.218
- Harris-Britt, A., Valrie, C. R., Kurtz-Costes, B., & Rowley, S. J. (2007). Perceived racial discrimination and self-esteem in African American youth: Racial socialization as a protective factor. Journal of Research on Adolescence, 17, 669–682. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1532-7795.2007.00540.x
- Hughes, D., & Johnson, D. (2001). Correlates in children's experiences of parents' racial socialization behaviors. Journal of Marriage and Family, 63, 981–995. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1741-3737.2001.00981.x
- Hughes, D., Rodriguez, J., Smith, E. P., Johnson, D. J., Stevenson, H. C., & Spicer, P. (2006). Parents’ ethnic-racial socialization practices: A review of research and directions for future study. Developmental Psychology, 42, 747–770. https://doi.org/10.1037/0012-1649.42.5.747
- Hughes, D., Watford, J. A., & Del Toro, J. (2016). A transactional/ecological perspective on ethnic-racial identity, socialization, and discrimination. Advances in Child Development and Behavior, 51, 1–41. https://doi.org/10.1016/bs.acdb.2016.05.001
- Huynh, V. W., & Fuligni, A. J. (2010). Discrimination hurts: The academic, psychological, and physical well-being of adolescents. Journal of Research on Adolescence, 20, 916–941. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1532-7795.2010.00670.x
- Juang, L. P., Park, I., Kim, S. Y., Lee, R. M., Qin, D., Okazaki, S., … Lau, A. (2018). Reactive and proactive ethnic-racial socialization practices of second-generation Asian American parents. Asian American Journal of Psychology, 9, 4–16. https://doi.org/10.1037/aap0000101
- Kanacri, B. P. L., Eisenberg, N., Thartori, E., Pastorelli, C., Tirado, L. M. U., Gerbino, M., & Caprara, G. V. (2017). Longitudinal relations among positivity, perceived positive school climate, and prosocial behavior in Colombian adolescents. Child Development, 88, 1100–1114. https://doi.org/10.1111/cdev.12863
- Kim, S. Y., Wang, Y., Deng, S., Alevarez, R., & Li, J. (2011). Accent, perpetual foreigner stereotype, and perceived discrimination as indirect links between English proficiency and depressive symptoms in Chinese American adolescents. Developmental Psychology, 47, 289–301. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0020712
- Levy, D. J., Heissel, J. A., Richeson, J. A., & Adam, E. K. (2016). Psychological and biological responses to race-based social stress as pathways to disparities in educational outcomes. American Psychologist, 71, 455–473. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0040322
- Lewis, J. A., Nishina, A., Hall, A. R., Cain, S., Bellmore, A., & Witkow, M. R. (2018). Early adolescents’ peer experiences with ethnic diversity in middle school: Implications for academic outcomes. Journal of Youth and Adolescence, 47, 194–206. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10964-017-0697-1
- McGill, R. K., Hughes, D., Alicea, S., & Way, N. (2012). Academic adjustment across middle school: The role of public regard and parenting. Developmental Psychology, 48, 1003–1018. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0026006
- McNair, D. M., Lorr, M., & Droppleman, L. F. (1971). Manual for the profile of mood states. San Diego, CA: Educational and Industrial Testing Service.
- Michigan’s Center for Educational Performance and Information. (2017). Student count snapshot, Lansing public school district (33020): 2015–16/9th/race/ethnicity/all students. Retrieved from https://www.mischooldata.org/DistrictSchoolProfiles/StudentInformation/StudentCounts/StudentCount.aspx
- Murry, V. M., Berkel, C., Brody, G. H., Miller, S. J., & Chen, Y.-F. (2009). Linking parental socialization to interpersonal protective processes, academic self-presentations, and expectations among rural African American youth. Cultural Diversity and Ethnic Minority Psychology, 15, 1–10. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0013180
- Nelson, S. C., Syed, M., Tran, A. G. T. T., Hu, A. W., & Lee, R. M. (2018). Pathways to ethnic-racial identity development and psychological adjustment: The differential associations of cultural socialization by parents and peers. Developmental Psychology, 54, 2166–2180. https://doi.org/10.1037/dev0000597
- Niwa, E. Y., Way, N., & Hughes, D. L. (2014). Trajectories of ethnic-racial discrimination among ethnically diverse early adolescents: Associations with psychological and social adjustment. Child Development, 85, 2339–2354. https://doi.org/10.1111/cdev.12310
- Page-Gould, E., Mendoza-Denton, R., & Tropp, L. R. (2008). With a little help from my cross-group friend: Reducing anxiety in intergroup contexts through cross-group friendship. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 95, 1080–1094. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.95.5.1080
- Potochnick, S., Perreira, K. M., & Fuligni, A. (2012). Fitting in: The roles of social acceptance and discrimination in shaping the daily psychological well-being of Latino youth. Social Science Quarterly, 93, 173–190. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1540-6237.2011.00830.x
- Preacher, K. J., Zyphur, M. J., & Zhang, Z. (2010). A general multilevel SEM framework for assessing multilevel mediation. Psychological Methods, 15, 209–233. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0020141
- Seaton, E. K., & Douglass, S. (2014). School diversity and racial discrimination among African-American adolescents. Cultural Diversity and Ethnic Minority Psychology, 20, 156–165. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0035322
- Seaton, E. K., & Iida, M. (2019). Racial discrimination and racial identity: Daily moderation among Black youth. American Psychologist, 74, 117–127. https://doi.org/10.1037/amp0000367
- Seaton, E. K., Quintana, S., Verkuyten, M., & Gee, G. C. (2017). Peers, policies, and place: The relation between context and ethnic/racial identity. Child Development, 88, 683–692. https://doi.org/10.1111/cdev.12787
- Sellers, R. M., Rowley, S. A. J., Chavous, T. M., Shelton, J. N., & Smith, M. A. (1997). Multidimensional Inventory of Black Identity: A preliminary investigation of reliability and constuct validity. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 73, 805–815. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.73.4.805
- Simpson, E. H. (1949). Measurement of diversity. Nature, 163, 688. https://doi.org/10.1038/163688a0
- Umaña-Taylor, A. J. (2004). Ethnic identity and self-esteem: Examining the role of social context. Journal of Adolescence, 27, 139–146. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.adolescence.2003.11.006
- Umaña-Taylor, A. J., & Hill, N. E. (2020). Ethnic–racial socialization in the family: A decade’s advance on precursors and outcomes. Journal of Marriage and Family, 82, 244–271. https://doi.org/10.1111/jomf.12622
- Umaña-Taylor, A. J., Quintana, S. M., Lee, R. M., Cross, W. E., Rivas-Drake, D., & Schwartz, S. J., … Ethnic and Racial Identity in the 21st Century Study Group. (2014). Ethnic and racial identity during adolescence and into young adulthood: An integrated conceptualization. Child Development, 85, 21–39. https://doi.org/10.1111/cdev.12196
- Wang, M. T., Henry, D. A., Smith, L. V., Huguley, J. P., & Guo, J. (2019). Parental ethnic-racial socialization practices and children of color’s psychosocial and behavioral adjustment: A systematic review and meta-analysis. American Psychologist. https://doi.org/10.1037/amp0000464
- Wang, M. T., Smith, L. V., Miller-Cotto, D., & Huguley, J. P. (2019). Parental ethnic-racial socialization and children of color's academic success: A meta-analytic review. Child Development. https://doi.org/10.1111/cdev.13254
- Wang, Y., & Benner, A. D. (2016). Cultural socialization across contexts: Family-peer congruence and adolescent well-being. Journal of Youth and Adolescence, 45, 594–611. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10964-016-0426-1
- Wang, Y., Benner, A. D., & Kim, S. Y. (2015). The cultural socialization scale: Assessing family and peer socialization toward heritage and mainstream cultures. Psychological Assessment, 27, 1452–1462. https://doi.org/10.1037/pas0000136
- Wang, Y., & Yip, T. (2020a). Parallel changes in ethnic/racial discrimination and identity in high school. Journal of Youth and Adolescence, 49, 1517–1530. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10964-019-01186-w
- Wang, Y., & Yip, T. (2020b). Sleep facilitates coping: Moderated mediation of daily sleep, ethnic/racial discrimination, stress responses, and adolescent well-being. Child Development, 91, e833–e852.
- Williams, D. R., & Mohammed, S. A. (2009). Discrimination and racial disparities in health: Evidence and needed research. Journal of Behavioral Medicine, 32, 20–47. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10865-008-9185-0
- Witkow, M. R. (2006). Perceived social norms for schoolwork and achievement during adolescence. Ypsilanti, MI: Eastern Michigan University.
- Yip, T. (2016). To be or not to be: How ethnic/racial stereotypes influence ethnic/racial disidentification and psychological mood. Cultural Diversity and Ethnic Minority Psychology, 22, 38–46. https://doi.org/10.1037/cdp0000046
- Yip, T., Cham, H., Wang, Y., & Ayturk, E. (2019). Discrimination and sleep mediate ethnic/racial identity and adolescent adjustment: Uncovering change processes with slope-as-mediator mediation. Child Development, 91, 1021–1043. https://doi.org/10.1111/cdev.13276
- Yip, T., Cheon, Y. M., Wang, Y., Cham, H., Tryon, W., & El-Sheikh, M. (2020). Racial Disparities in sleep: Associations with discrimination among ethnic/racial minority adolescents. Child Development, 91, 914–931. https://doi.org/10.1111/cdev.13234
- Yuan, K.-H., & Bentler, P. M. (2000). Three likelihoodbased methods for mean and covariance structure analysis with nonnormal missing data. Sociological Methodology, 30, 165–200. https://doi.org/10.1111/0081-1750.00078
- Zeiders, K. H., Doane, L. D., & Roosa, M. W. (2012). Perceived discrimination and diurnal cortisol: Examining relations among Mexican American adolescents. Hormones and Behavior, 61, 541–548. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.yhbeh.2012.01.018