Empirical Article: Accepted Under Jeff Lockman's Editorship
Trajectories of Ethnic-Racial Discrimination Among Ethnically Diverse Early Adolescents: Associations With Psychological and Social Adjustment
Erika Y. Niwa,
Niobe Way, Diane L. Hughes,
Corresponding Author
Erika Y. Niwa
Brooklyn College, CUNY
Correspondence concerning this article should be addressed to Erika Y. Niwa, Department of Psychology, Brooklyn College, Brooklyn, NY 11210. Electronic mail may be sent to [email protected].Search for more papers by this authorErika Y. Niwa,
Niobe Way, Diane L. Hughes,
Corresponding Author
Erika Y. Niwa
Brooklyn College, CUNY
Correspondence concerning this article should be addressed to Erika Y. Niwa, Department of Psychology, Brooklyn College, Brooklyn, NY 11210. Electronic mail may be sent to [email protected].Search for more papers by this authorThis research was supported by grants from the National Science Foundation, the W.T. Grant Foundation, and New York University. This manuscript is based on the doctoral dissertation of the first author, conducted under the supervision of the second and third authors at New York University. The lead author, Erika Y. Niwa, is now affiliated with the Department of Psychology at the City University of New York's Brooklyn College.
Abstract
Using longitudinal data, the authors assessed 585 Dominican, Chinese, and African American adolescents (Grades 6–8, Mage at W1 = 11.83) to determine patterns over time of perceived ethnic-racial discrimination from adults and peers; if these patterns varied by gender, ethnicity, and immigrant status; and whether they are associated with psychological (self-esteem, depressive symptoms) and social (friend and teacher relationship quality, school belonging) adjustment. Two longitudinal patterns for adult discrimination and three longitudinal patterns for peer discrimination were identified using a semiparametric mixture model. These trajectories were distinct with regard to the initial level, shape, and changes in discrimination. Trajectories varied by gender and ethnicity and were significantly linked to psychological and social adjustment. Directions for future research and practice are discussed.
References
- Allison, P. D. (2001). Missing data. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
- Allport, G. W. (1979). The nature of prejudice. Cambridge, MA: Perseus Books. (Original work published 1954)
- Benner, A. D., & Graham, S. (2013). The antecedents and consequences of racial/ethnic discrimination during adolescence: Does the source of discrimination matter? Developmental Psychology, 49, 1602–1613. doi:10.1037/a0030557
- Berkel, C., Knight, G. P., Zeiders, K. H., Tein, J., Roosa, M. W., Gonzales, N. A., & Saenz, D. (2010). Discrimination and adjustment for Mexican American adolescents: A prospective examination of the benefits of culturally related values. Journal of Research on Adolescence, 20, 893–915. doi:10.1111/j.1532-7795.2010
- Brand, S., Felner, R., Shim, M., Seitsinger, A., & Dumas, T. (2003). Middle school improvement and reform: Development and validation of a school-level assessment of climate, cultural pluralism, and school safety. Journal of Educational Psychology, 95, 570–588. doi:10.1037/0022-0663.95.3.570
- Brittian, A. S., Toomey, R. B., Gonzales, N. A., & Dumka, L. E. (2013). Perceived discrimination, coping strategies, and Mexican origin adolescents' internalizing and externalizing behaviors. Applied Developmental Science, 17, 4–19. doi:10.1080/10888691.2013.748417
- Brown, C. S., & Bigler, R. (2005). Children's perceptions of discrimination: A developmental model. Child Development, 76, 533–553. doi:10.1111/j.1467-8624.2005.00862
- Buhrmester, D. (1990). Intimacy of friendship, interpersonal competence, and adjustment during preadolescence and adolescence. Child Development, 61, 1101–1111.
- Chavous, T. M., Rivas-Drake, D., Smalls, C., Griffin, T., & Cogburn, C. (2008). Gender matters: The influences of school racial discrimination and racial identity on academic engagement outcomes among African American adolescents. Developmental Psychology, 44, 637–654. doi:10.1037/0012-1649.44.3.637
- Coker, T. R., Elliott, M. N., Kanouse, D. E., Grunbaum, J., Schwebel, D. C., Gilliland, M. J., … Schuster, M. A. (2009). Perceived racial/ethnic discrimination among fifth-grade students and its association with mental health. American Journal of Public Health, 99, 878–884. doi:10.2105/AJPH.2008.144329
- Connell, J. P., & Wellborn, J. G. (1991). Competence, autonomy, and relatedness: A motivational analysis of self-system processes. In M. R. Gunnar & L. A. Sroufe (Eds.), Self processes and development (Vol. 23, pp. 43–77). Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.
- Crocker, J., Major, B., & Steele, C. (1998). Social stigma. In D. Gilbert, S. T. Fiske, & G. Lindzey (Eds.), The handbook of social psychology (Vol. 2, 4th ed., pp. 504–553). Boston, MA: McGraw-Hill.
- Cunningham, M. (1999). African American adolescent males' perceptions of their community resources and constraints: A longitudinal analysis. Journal of Community Psychology, 27, 569–588. doi:10.1002/SICI1520-6629
- Devos, T., & Banaji, M. R. (2005). American = White? Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 88, 447. doi:10.1037/0022-3514.88.3.447
- Dodge, H. H., Shen, C., & Ganguli, M. (2008). Application of the pattern-mixture latent trajectory model in an epidemiological study with non-ignorable missingness. Journal of Data Science, 6, 231–246.
- Eccles, J. S., Midgley, C., Wigfield, A., Buchanan, C. M., Reuman, D., Flanagan, C., … MacIver, D. (1993). Development during adolescence: The impact of stage-environment fit on young adolescents' experiences in schools and in families. American Psychologist, 48, 90–101. doi:10.1037/0003-066x.48.2.90
- Erikson, E. (1968). Identity: Youth and crisis. New York, NY: Norton.
- Fisher, C. B., Wallace, S. A., & Fenton, R. E. (2000). Discrimination distress during adolescence. Journal of Youth and Adolescence, 29, 679–695. doi:10.1023/A.1026455906512
- Furman, W., & Buhrmester, D. (1985). Children's perceptions of the personal relationships in their social networks. Developmental Psychology, 21, 1016–1024.
- Galinsky, A. D., Hall, E. V., & Cuddy, A. J. C. (2013). Gendered races: Implications for interracial marriage, leadership selection, and athletic participation. Psychological Science, 24, 498–506. doi:10.1177/0956797612457783
- García Coll, C., Lamberty, G., Jenkins, R., McAdoo, H. P., Crnic, K., Wasik, B. H., & Vázquez García, H. (1996). An integrative model for the study of developmental competencies in minority children. Child Development, 67, 1891–1914. doi:10.1111/j.1467-8624.1996.tb01834.x
- Gelman, A., & Hill, J. (2007). Data analysis using regression and multilevel/hierarchical models. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press.
- Goodenow, C. (1992). Strengthening the links between educational psychology and the study of social contexts. Educational Psychologist, 27, 177–196. doi:10.1207/s15326985ep2702_4
- Greene, M. L., Way, N., & Pahl, K. (2006). Trajectories of perceived adult and peer discrimination among Black, Latino, and Asian American adolescents: Patterns and psychological correlates. Developmental Psychology, 42, 218–238. doi:10.1037/0012-1649.42.2.218
- Haynes, N. M., Emmons, C., & Comer, J. P. (1993). Elementary and middle school climate survey. New Haven, CT: Yale University Child Study Center.
- Hwang, W., & Goto, S. (2008). The impact of perceived racial discrimination on the mental health of Asian American and Latino college students. Cultural Diversity and Ethnic Minority Psychology, 14, 326–335. doi:10.1037/1948-1985.S.1.15
- Jessor, R., Van Den Bos, J., Vanderryn, J., Costa, F. M., & Turbin, M. S. (1995). Protective factors in adolescent problem behavior: Moderator effects and developmental change. Developmental Psychology, 31, 923–933. doi:10.1037/0012-1649.31.6.923
- Johnson, K. L., Freeman, J. B., & Pauker, K. (2012). Race is gendered: How covarying phenotypes and stereotypes bias sex categorization. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 102, 116–131. doi:10.1037/a0025335
- Kinder, D. R., & Sears, D. O. (1981). Prejudice and politics: Symbolic racism versus racial threats to a good life. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 48, 414–431. doi:10.1037/0022-3514.40.3.414
- Liang, B., Grossman, J., & Deguchi, M. (2007). Chinese American middle school youths' experiences of discrimination and stereotyping. Qualitative Research in Psychology, 4, 187–205. doi:10.1080/14780880701473599
10.1080/14780880701473599 Google Scholar
- Little, R. J. A., & Rubin, D. B. (1989). The analysis of social science data with missing values. Sociological Methods and Research, 18, 292–326. doi:10.1177/0049124189018002004
- Major, B., Quinton, W. J., McCoy, S. K., & Schmader, T. (2000). Reducing prejudice: The target's perspective. In S. Oskamp (Ed.), Reducing prejudice and discrimination (pp. 211–237). Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum.
- McKown, C., & Strambler, M. J. (2009). Developmental antecedents and social and academic consequences of stereotype-consciousness in middle childhood. Child Development, 80, 1643–1659. doi:10.1111/j.1467-8624.2009.01359x
- Muthén, L. K., & Muthén, B. O. (2001). Mplus users guide ( 2nd ed.) Los Angeles: Muthén & Muthén.
- Nagin, D. S. (2005). Group-based modeling of development. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.
10.4159/9780674041318 Google Scholar
- Nagin, D. S., & Tremblay, R. A. (1999). Trajectories of boys physical aggression, opposition, and hyperactivity on the path to physically violence and nonviolent juvenile delinquency. Child Development, 70, 1181–1196. doi:10.1111/1467-8624.00086
- Niwa, E. Y. (2012). The impact of ethnic and racial discrimination on the social and psychological adjustment of early adolescents (Unpublished doctoral dissertation), New York University, New York.
- Niwa, E. Y., Way, N., Qin-Hilliard, D. B., & Okazaki, S. (2011). Hostile hallways: Asian American adolescents' experiences of peer discrimination in school. In F. T. L. Leong, L. Juang, D. B. Qin, & H. E. Fitzgerald (Eds.), Asian American and Pacific Islander children and mental health (Vol. 1, pp. 193–217). Santa Barbara, CA: Praeger.
- Noguera, P. A. (2003). The trouble with Black boys: The role and influence of environmental and cultural factors on the academic performance of African American males. Urban Education, 38, 431–459. doi:10.1177/0042085903038004005
- Osterman, K. F. (2000). Students' need for belonging in the school community. Review of Educational Research, 70, 323–367. doi:10.3102/00346543070003323
- Peguero, A. A., & Williams, L. M. (2011). Racial and ethnic stereotypes and bullying victimization. Youth & Society, 45, 545–564. doi:10.1177/0044118X11424757
- Powell, C. L., & Arriola, K. R. J. (2003). Relationship between psychosocial factors and academic achievement among African American students. Journal of Educational Research, 96, 175–181. doi:10.1080/00220670309598805
- Purdie-Vaughns, V., & Eibach, R. P. (2008). Intersectional invisibility: The distinct advantages and disadvantages of multiple subordinate-group identities. Sex Roles, 59, 377–391. doi:10.1007/s11199-008-9424-4
- Robers, S., Zhang, J., & Truman, J. (2010). Indicators of school crime and safety: 2010 (NCES 2011-002/NCJ 230812). Washington, DC: National Center for Education Statistics, U.S. Department of Education, and Bureau of Justice Statistics, Office of Justice Programs, U.S. D.O.J.
- Roberts, S. (2008, December 9). Census shows growing diversity in New York City, New York Times. Retrieved from http://www.nytimes.com/2008/12/09/nyregion/09census.html?pagewanted=all&_r=0
- Roeser, R. W., Eccles, J. S., & Sameroff, A. J. (2000). School as a context of early adolescents' academic and social-emotional development: A summary of research findings. The Elementary School Journal, 100, 443–471.
- Romero, A. J., & Roberts, R. E. (1998). Perception of discrimination and ethnocultural variables in a diverse group of adolescents. Journal of Adolescence, 21, 641–656. doi:10.1006/jado.1998.0185
- Rosenberg, M. (1965). Society and the adolescent image. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press.
10.1515/9781400876136 Google Scholar
- Rosenbloom, S. R., & Way, N. (2004). Experiences of discrimination among African American, Asian American, and Latino adolescents in an urban high school. Youth & Society, 35, 420–451. doi:10.1177/0044118x03261479
- Schafer, J. L. (1999). Multiple imputation. Statistical Methods in Medical Research, 8, 3–15. doi:10.1177/096228029900800102
- Seaton, E. K., Caldwell, C. H., Sellers, R. M., & Jackson, J. S. (2008). The prevalence of perceived discrimination among African American and Caribbean Black youth. Developmental Psychology, 44, 1288. doi:10.1037/a0012747
- Sellers, R. M., Copeland-Linder, N., Martin, P. P., & Lewis, R. L. (2006). Racial identity matters: The relationship between racial discrimination and psychological functioning in African American adolescents. Journal of Research on Adolescence, 16, 187–216. doi:10.1111/j.1532-795.2006.00128x
- Sidanius, J., & Pratto, F. (1999). Social dominance: An intergroup theory of social hierarchy and oppression. New York, NY: Cambridge University Press.
10.1017/CBO9781139175043 Google Scholar
- Simons, R. L., Murry, V., McLoyd, V., Lin, K., Cutrona, C., & Conger, R. D. (2002). Discrimination, crime, ethnic identity, and parenting as correlates of depressive symptoms among African American children: A multi-level analysis. Development and Psychopathology, 14, 371–393. doi:10.1017/s0954579402002109
- Sitarenios, G., & Kovacs, M. (1999). Use of the children's depression inventory. In M. E. Maruish (Ed.), The use of psychological testing for treatment planning and outcomes assessment ( 2nd ed., pp. 267–298). Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum.
- Smedley, A., & Smedley, B. D. (2005). Race as biology is fiction, racism as a social problem is real. American Psychologist, 60, 16–26. doi:10.1037/0003-066x.60.1.16
- Smetana, J. G., Campione-Barr, N., & Metzger, A. (2006). Adolescent development in interpersonal and societal contexts. Annual Review of Psychology, 57, 255–284. doi:10.1146/annurev.psych.57.102904.190124
- Stagnor, C., & Schaller, M. (1996). Stereotypes as individual and collective representations. In C. N. Macrae, C. Stagnor, & M. Hewstone (Eds.), Stereotypes and stereotyping (pp. 3–37). New York, NY: Guilford Press.
- Su, Y., Gelman, A., Hill, J., & Yajima, M. (2011). Multiple imputation with diagnostics (mi) in R: Opening windows into the black box. Journal of Statistical Software, 45, 1–31.
- Sue, D. W., et al. (2007). Racial microaggressions in everyday life. American Psychologist, 62, 271–286. doi:10.1037/0003-066x.62.4.271
- Swanson, D. P., Spencer, M. B., Harpalani, V., Dupree, D., Noll, E., Ginzburg, S., & Seaton, G. (2003). Psychosocial development in racially and ethnically diverse youth. Development & Psychopathology, 15, 743–771. doi:10.1017/s0954579403000361
- Szalacha, L., Erkut, S., García Coll, C., Alarcón, O., Fields, J. P., & Ceder, I. (2003). Discrimination and Puerto Rican children's and adolescents' mental health. Cultural Diversity and Ethnic Minority Psychology, 9, 141–155. doi:10.1037/1099-9089.9.2.141
- Tajfel, H., & Turner, J. C. (1986). The social identity theory of intergroup behavior. In S. Worchel & W. Austin (Eds.), Psychology of inter-group relations (pp. 7–24). Chicago, IL: Nelson-Hall.
- Tatum, B. D. (1997). “Why are all the black kids sitting together in the cafeteria?” And other conversations about race. New York, NY: Basic Books.
- Tummala-Narra, P., & Claudius, M. (2013). Perceived discrimination and depressive symptoms among immigrant-origin adolescents. Cultural Diversity and Ethnic Minority Psychology, 19, 257–269. doi:10.1037/a0032960
- Washburn, M. (2008). School belonging and adjustment among urban, low-income, ethnic minority adolescents (Unpublished doctoral dissertation). New York University, New York.
- Waters, M. (1996). The intersection of gender, race, and ethnicity in identity development of Caribbean American teens. In B. J. Ross Leadbeater & N. Way (Eds.), Urban girls: Resisting, creating identities (pp. 65–81). New York, NY: New York University Press.
- Way, N. (1997). Adult and peer discrimination measure. Unpublished manuscript.
- Way, N., Mukherjee, P. P., Hughes, D. L., & Niwa, E. Y. (2009, April). Forms, patterns, and sources of ethnic and racial discrimination among Chinese American, Black, and Latino adolescents. Paper presented at the biennial meeting of the Society for Research in Child Development, Denver, CO.
- Way, N., Reddy, R., & Rhodes, J. (2007). Students' perceptions of school climate during the middle school years: Associations with trajectories of psychological and behavioral adjustment. American Journal of Community Psychology, 40, 194–213. doi:10.1007/s10464-007-9143-y
- Way, N., & Robinson, M. (2003). A longitudinal study of the effects of family, friends, and school experiences on the psychological adjustment of ethnic minority low-SES adolescents. Journal of Adolescent Research, 18, 324–347. doi:10.1177/0743558403018004001
- Way, N., Santos, C., Niwa, E. Y., & Kim-Gervey, C. (2008). To be or not to be: A contextualized understanding of ethnic identity development. New Directions in Child and Adolescent Development, 120, 61–79. doi:10.1002/cd.216
- Willet, J. B., & Sayer, A. G. (1994). Using covariance structure analysis to detect correlates and predictors of individual change over time. Psychological Bulletin, 116, 363–381. doi:10.1037/0033-2909.116.2.363
- Williams, D. R., Neighbors, H. W., & Jackson, J. S. (2003). Racial/ethnic discrimination and health: Findings from community studies. American Journal of Public Health, 93, 200–208. doi:10.2105/AJPH.93.2.200
- Williams, D. R., Yu, Y., Jackson, J. S., & Anderson, N. B. (1997). Racial differences in physical and mental health. Journal of Health Psychology, 2, 335–351. doi:10.1177/135910539700200305
- Windle, M., & Weisner, M. (2004). Trajectories of marijuana use from adolescence to young adulthood: Predictors and outcomes. Development and Psychopathology, 16, 1007–1027. doi:10.1017/s0954579404040118
- Wong, C. A., Eccles, J. S., & Sameroff, A. (2003). The influence of ethnic discrimination and ethnic identification on African American adolescents' school and socioemotional adjustment. Journal of Personality, 71, 1197–1232. doi:10.1111/1467-6494.7106012
- Wong, F., & Halgin, R. (2006). The “model minority”: Bane or blessing for Asian Americans? Journal of Multicultural Counseling and Development, 34, 38–49. doi:10.1002/j.2161-1912.2006/tb00025.x
Citing Literature
November/December 2014
Pages 2339-2354
